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< Serial Programming

Serial Programming: Introduction and OSI Network Model-- RS-232 Wiring and Connections-- Typical RS232 Hardware Configuration-- 8250 UART-- DOS-- MAX232 Driver/Receiver Family-- TAPI Communications In Windows-- Linux and Unix-- Java-- Hayes-compatible Modems and AT Commands-- Universal Serial Bus (USB)-- Forming Data Packets-- Error Correction Methods-- Two Way Communication-- Packet Recovery Methods-- Serial Data Networks-- Practical Application Development-- IP Over Serial Connections

This page lines out a typical serial RS232-hardware configuration as it can be found in computers and devices of all kinds. It should serve as a guideline and introduction to the direct programming of some serial hardware.

The provided information is generic in nature, since the actual serial hardware which can be found in some device or computer do vary. Often these days the hardware is integrated in one single chip, even with many other functions like a parallel port, unrelated to serial communications. Nevertheless this module provides a good overview about which logical or physical components do what, and where the programming of serial hardware actually happens.

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Involved Components[edit]

The following figure provides an overview of the involved components, and how they are in principle connected:

We will discuss the components and their purpose in turn.

Line Driver / Receiver[edit]

RS-232 communication uses voltage up to ±15V (some early specs even use ±25V). And it uses an inverse logic (high/true/1 is a negative voltage, low/false/0 is a positive voltage). These voltages are far too high for modern (and evenolder) computer logic. Therefore, RS-232 interfaces typically contain special hardware, a so-called line driver and a line receiver.

The line driver is responsible for converting typical computer voltage logic to the high voltages used on the RS-232 line, and for inverting the logic. This is used when the computer hardware transmits serial data. The voltage output is typically continuous short-circuit safe, as this is required by the RS-232 standard.

The line receiver is responsible for the inverse operation of the line driver. It converts incoming RS-232 signals to voltages safe for computer logic, and it of course also inverts the logic.

Actually, there is usually more than one line driver and receiver in use, because each incoming RS-232 signal in a RS-232 cable needs its own receiver, and each outgoing RS-232 signal needs its own driver. However, typically multipledrivers / receivers are combined in one chip. The chip as such also protects the computer logic from spikes which could happen on the serial wire. Some line driver / receiver chips even generate the necessary RS-232 voltage on-chip, while others need external power sources for these voltages.

Line drivers / receivers are typically not programmable. They are hard-wired into the logic and as such of no great concern for the programmer.

See Also:

The module MAX232 Driver/Receiver Family for an example of a popular driver / receiver in amateur electronics.
The module RS-232 Wiring and Connections

UART[edit]

The UART (universal asynchronous receiver transmitter) is the heart of the serial hardware. It is a chip or part of a chip with the purpose to convert between parallel data and serial data. RS-232 UARTs also typically add the necessary start/stop and parity bits when transmitting, and decode this information when receiving.

A UART typically operates entirely on computer logic voltage. Its serial data input/output voltage is the computer logic voltage, not the serial line voltage. They leave the actual line interface to a particular line driver / receiver. This line driver / receiver does not necessarily need to be an RS-232 line driver / receiver, but could e.g. also be an RS-422 differential driver / receiver. This, and the fact that baud rate, parity, number of stop bits, number of data bits are programmable is the reason why UARTs are called universal. The distinction between UART and line driver / receiver blurs if they are both placed in the same chip. Such chips are typically also sold under the label 'UART'.

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UARTs are called asynchronous, because they don't use a special clock signal to synchronize with the remote side. Instead, they use the start/stop bits to identify the data bits in the serial stream.
Thanks to the UART the rest of the hardware, as well as the software application can deal with normal bytes to hold the communication data. It is the job of the UART to chop a byte into a series of serial bits when sending, and to assemble series of bits into a byte when receiving. UARTs typically contain eight bit wide receiver and transmission buffers. Of which not all bits might be used if e.g. a 7 bit transmission is used. Received serial data is provided inparallel in the receiver buffer, to-be-send data is written in parallel to the transmission buffer. Depending on the UART the buffers might just have a depth of one byte, or a few bytes (in the range of 15 or 16 bytes). The less deepthe buffers are, the more precise the communication with the CPU needs to be. E.g. if the receiver buffer just has a depth of one byte, and the data is not fetched fast enough, the next received data can overwrite the previously received data in the buffer, and the previously received data is lost.

Because of the fact that the timing on the serial interface is important, UARTs are typically connected to a baud rate generator, either an internal one in the UART chip, or an external one.

USART[edit]

A USART (universal synchronous/asynchronous receiver transmitter) is a version of an UART that can also communicate synchronously. Many modern ICs have this feature. However, as RS232 works asynchronously, the synchronous features of a USART aren't used for serial communication. Depending on the particular type of USART the synchronous features are either turned off at start or need to be turned off. Once they are off a USART is a UART when it comes to RS232 communication.

Baud Rate Generator[edit]

Principle of Operation[edit]

The baud rate generator is an oscillator. It provides a frequency signal which is used to control the timing on the serial interface. Since different line speeds need a different timing, the baud rate generation needs to be flexible.

There are two general ways to achieve a flexible baud rate generation. Either the baud rate generator itself is programmable and can produce the necessary different frequencies, or the UART has a programmable divider or multiplier, which converts the frequency from the baud rate generator into the required frequencies. Observers might have noticed that there are fixed relation between typical baud rates (300bps, 600bps, 1200bps, 2400bps, 9600bps (4 x 2400bps), etc.). This simplifies the usage of frequency dividers or multipliers to generate the necessary timing.

Depending on the actual UART, the baud rate generator either needs to be some external component, or it is directly integrated into the UART chip. From the outside, the programmatic change of the baud rate generation is the means to control the speed of the serial connection. Often when programming the baud rate one doesn't provide the desired baud rate in 'clear text', but needs to provide some divider or factor. Providing the right divider or factor requires knowledge of the basic frequency of the used baud rate generator.

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